Euripides (c. 484–407 BCE): The Innovator of Greek Tragedy

Quick Summary: Euripides, the youngest of the three great tragedians, revolutionized Greek drama by introducing psychological realism and ordinary, flawed characters. His works often centered on women and questioned traditional gods, making him the most controversial yet enduring figure of his time.

The Euripidean Style

Born around 484 BCE in Athens, Euripides broke away from the heroic grandeur of Aeschylus and the idealized figures of Sophocles. He shifted the focus of tragedy to human psychology and inner conflict.

Realism: His characters were "men as they are"—flawed, emotional, and deeply human.
Focus on Women: Female characters (like Medea, Phaedra, and Electra) were central, complex, and powerful agents in his dramas.
Skepticism: He openly questioned the justice of the gods and the validity of ancient traditions, earning him both criticism and fascination.
Output: He wrote approximately 90 plays, of which 18 survive fully today.

Medea (431 BCE): A Tragedy of Revenge

🎯 Exam Point: Medea was staged in 431 BCE. It explores the destructive power of betrayal and female rage.

Medea is one of the most powerful and shocking plays in Western literature.

Plot: Medea, a sorceress who sacrificed everything for her husband Jason, is betrayed when he marries the princess of Corinth for political gain.
The Revenge: Consumed by fury, Medea executes a horrific plan. She sends a poisoned robe to kill Jason's new wife and then—in the ultimate act of vengeance—kills her own children to destroy Jason's lineage and happiness.
Themes: The play explores themes of betrayal, the oppression of women, and the terrifying extremes of passion.

Alcestis: The Tragicomedy

Alcestis is unique for blending tragic themes with elements of comedy and a happy resolution.

Sacrifice: Alcestis agrees to die in place of her husband, Admetus, so he can live.
Resolution: Heracles intervenes, wrestles with Death (Thanatos), and restores Alcestis to life.
Themes: Devotion, the fear of death, and the nature of sacrifice.

The Bacchae: The Masterpiece

🎯 Exam Point: The Bacchae is often considered Euripides' masterpiece. It dramatizes the conflict between order and ecstasy.

This play dramatizes the arrival of the god Dionysus in Thebes.

Conflict: King Pentheus, representing rigid order and rationality, opposes the worship of Dionysus.
Consequence: Pentheus is lured to the mountains and torn apart by the Maenads (female followers of Dionysus), led by his own mother, Agave, in a frenzy of divine madness.
Moral: Denying the irrational or divine side of nature leads to destruction.

Other Major Plays

1. Hippolytus

This play explores repressed desire. Phaedra falls in love with her stepson, Hippolytus. When rejected, she commits suicide but leaves a note falsely accusing him of rape, leading to his death. It is a study of forbidden passion and the cruelty of the gods (Aphrodite).

2. Electra

Euripides' version of the Orestes myth is grittier and more realistic than Aeschylus's or Sophocles' versions. It focuses on the psychological damage of the siblings.

🎯 Exam Point: Euripides' portrayal of Electra's obsession with her father inspired the psychological concept of the "Electra Complex."

3. The Trojan Women

A profound anti-war play depicting the aftermath of the Fall of Troy. It focuses entirely on the suffering of the surviving women (Hecuba, Andromache, Cassandra) as they await enslavement, stripping war of its glory.