Table of Contents
1. Pragmatics: Meaning in Context
Pragmatics goes beyond the literal dictionary meanings of words (semantics) to examine how context, speaker intent, social norms, and situational factors influence communication in real life.
Unlike purely structural grammar, pragmatics looks at how the exact same sentence can convey completely different meanings depending on the situation. For example, the phrase "It's cold in here" could be a simple meteorological observation, or it could be a polite command for someone to close a window.
Figure 1: The 7 distinct areas of pragmatic analysis.
2. Deixis & Speech Act Theory
1. Deixis (Contextual Reliance)
Deixis refers to words (deictic expressions) that absolutely require contextual information to convey meaning. They "point" to specific realities. If you find a note on the floor saying "I’ll meet you there tomorrow," it is meaningless without context.
- Personal Deixis: I, you, we.
- Temporal Deixis: now, then, today, tomorrow.
- Spatial Deixis: here, there, this, that.
2. Speech Act Theory (Doing Things with Words)
Pioneered by J.L. Austin and expanded by John Searle, this theory explains that language is an action. A single utterance contains three layers of function:
🔥 The 3 Functions of a Speech Act
| Act Type | Definition | Example ("Can you shut the door?") |
|---|---|---|
| Locutionary Act | The literal, physical act of saying the words and their literal meaning. | A question regarding the listener's physical ability to shut a door. |
| Illocutionary Act | The speaker's true intent or the social force behind the words. | A direct request or command to shut the door. |
| Perlocutionary Act | The actual effect the words have on the listener's behavior or feelings. | The listener gets up and physically shuts the door. |
3. Implicature & Presupposition
3. Implicature (Inferred Meanings)
Developed by philosopher H.P. Grice, conversational implicature refers to meanings that are not explicitly stated but are understood through context and shared norms. It relies on Grice's Cooperative Principle and its four maxims (Quality, Quantity, Relevance, Manner).
- Example: Saying "It’s getting late" during a meeting creates an implicature based on Relevance, meaning "Let’s end the meeting now."
4. Presupposition (Background Assumptions)
Presuppositions are background facts that a speaker takes for granted and expects the listener to accept as true for the sentence to make sense.
- Example: "John stopped smoking" presupposes that John used to smoke.
- The Negation Test: Unlike other semantic features, presuppositions survive negation. If you say "John didn't stop smoking," it STILL presupposes that he used to smoke.
4. Politeness, Discourse, & Intercultural Pragmatics
5. Politeness and Face Theory
Developed by Brown and Levinson, Politeness Theory explores how speakers maintain social harmony. It centers on the concept of "Face" (public self-image).
- Positive Face: The desire to be liked, appreciated, and approved of.
- Negative Face: The desire to be autonomous and not imposed upon by others.
- Strategy: Asking "Would you mind if I opened the window?" respects the listener's Negative Face (giving them the option to say no), making it more polite than "Open the window."
6. Discourse Pragmatics & 7. Intercultural Pragmatics
- Discourse Pragmatics: Looks at longer stretches of text. It studies coherence, turn-taking, and discourse markers (words like "well," "so," or "anyway" that guide the flow of conversation).
- Intercultural Pragmatics: Focuses on how pragmatic norms shift across cultures, leading to misunderstandings. What is considered a polite request in English might be considered overly indirect or confusing in another language.
5. Frequently Asked Questions
What is the difference between Implicature and Presupposition?
An implicature is an indirect message you are trying to send (saying "I'm tired" to imply "Let's leave"). A presupposition is a background fact that must be true for your sentence to make logical sense (asking "Where did you buy your car?" presupposes that you own a car).
What is the difference between an Illocutionary and Perlocutionary act?
The illocutionary act is the INTENT of the speaker (e.g., trying to warn someone by saying "Watch out!"). The perlocutionary act is the EFFECT on the listener (e.g., the listener gets scared and jumps out of the way).
What are Grice's Maxims?
H.P. Grice proposed that conversations work because we follow four unwritten rules (maxims): Quantity (give the right amount of info), Quality (tell the truth), Relevance (stay on topic), and Manner (be clear). Implicatures happen when we purposely break these rules to imply something else.
What is Negative Face in Politeness Theory?
In Brown and Levinson's theory, Negative Face is not a bad thing. It simply means a person's desire to be independent, autonomous, and free from imposition. Apologizing before asking a favor ("I'm sorry to bother you, but...") is a strategy to protect the listener's negative face.
