Table of Contents
1. Schemes: The Architecture of Language
In literary theory, while Tropes change the meaning of words (like a metaphor), Schemes change the order or pattern of words. They are architectural devices that manipulate syntax and grammar to create rhythm, emphasis, or dramatic tension.
🔥 Exam Focus: Tropes vs. Schemes
Figurative language is divided into two categories. Schemes involve a deviation from the standard arrangement or pattern of words (e.g., alliteration, anaphora, inversion). (🔥 Asked in Exam)
2. Structural Repetition: Anaphora, Epiphora & Anadiplosis
Repetition is the oldest trick in the rhetorical playbook. But where exactly does the repetition happen? That is what the exam will ask you to identify.
🔥 Placement of Repetition
| Device | Where it Happens | Classic Example |
|---|---|---|
| Anaphora | Repetition at the beginning of successive clauses or lines. | "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times..." — Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities |
| Epiphora (Epistrophe) | Repetition at the end of successive clauses or lines. | "...government of the people, by the people, for the people..." — Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address |
| Anadiplosis | The last word of one clause becomes the first word of the next clause. | "Fear leads to anger. Anger leads to hate..." — Yoda (Star Wars) |
3. Syntax & Inversion: Chiasmus, Anastrophe & Split Infinitives
Chiasmus
Definition: A rhetorical figure in which grammatical constructions or concepts are repeated in reverse order (an AB-BA structure). (🔥 Asked in Exam - Figures based on Association is Chiasmus).
- Origin: From the Greek letter Chi (X), signifying a crisscross pattern.
- Example: "Fair is foul, and foul is fair." (William Shakespeare, Macbeth).
Anastrophe (Inversion)
Definition: The inversion of the usual syntactic order of words (usually Subject-Verb-Object) to achieve emphasis or poetic rhythm. (🔥 Asked in Exam - Inversion is a structure in which an auxiliary or other verb comes before its subject).
- Example: “The Rainbow comes and goes, / And lovely is the Rose…” (Wordsworth inverts "The Rose is lovely").
Split Infinitives
Definition: A structure in which an adverb or adverbial phrase physically separates the particle “to” from the verb in an infinitive. (🔥 Asked in Exam)
- Standard: To go boldly.
- Split Infinitive: To boldly go where no man has gone before. (Used heavily for rhythm and rhetorical force despite old prescriptive grammar rules).
4. Conjunctions & Flow: Asyndeton vs. Polysyndeton
Writers can control the speed and urgency of a sentence by playing with conjunctions (and, but, or).
Figure 1: How conjunctions alter the speed and mood of a sentence.
5. Economy & Wit: Zeugma & Ellipsis
Zeugma
Definition: A rhetorical figure in which a single word (usually a verb) "yokes" or modifies two or more words, but applies to them in different senses (one literal, one metaphorical). (🔥 Asked in Exam - Figures based on construction is Zeugma).
- Example: "He stole both her heart and her wallet." (Alexander Pope using zeugma for witty compression).
Ellipsis
Definition: The deliberate omission of one or more words that are understood from context, creating stylistic economy without sacrificing clarity.
- Example: "Some go to church to pray; others, to prey." (The second clause grammatically omits the verb go, but the brain fills it in).
6. Frequently Asked Questions
What is the difference between Anaphora and Epiphora?
Anaphora is repeating the same words at the START of sentences ("I have a dream... I have a dream..."). Epiphora is repeating the same words at the END of sentences ("...for the people, by the people").
Why do writers use Split Infinitives if they are "grammatically incorrect"?
The rule against split infinitives is an old prescriptive rule based on Latin (where infinitives are a single word and literally cannot be split). In English, splitting the infinitive (To boldly go) often sounds more natural, places emphasis on the adverb, and creates better poetic rhythm than "To go boldly."
What does the 'Chi' in Chiasmus mean?
Chi is the Greek letter 'X'. Chiasmus refers to a crisscross or X-shaped sentence structure. If you write "Fair is foul" on top of "Foul is fair" and draw lines connecting the matching words, it forms a perfect 'X'.
